ALBANIA: DESCENT INTO ANARCHY
A History Unlike Any Other
Although Albania has a long history, it only became an independent state during the 20th century. Examine the following chronology of major events in Albania's history, from ancient times to the present. What do you find unique or distinct in Albania's history?
- The Illyrians, early inhabitants of Albania who first arrived around 1000 BC, establish an independent kingdom between the fifth and third centuries BC.
- In 167 BC, following over a century of intermittent conflict, Illyria is conquered by the Romans.
- The Illyrians, now known as Arbers, are converted to Christianity in the second century AD.
- In 395, with the division of the Roman Empire, Albania becomes part of the eastern, Byzantine Empire.
- Between the fifth and 13th centuries, Albania is conquered by a succession of invaders, including Goths, Avars, Celts, Huns, Bulgars, Normans, and Crusaders from Europe on their way to the Holy Land.
- In 1344, Serbian ruler Stefan Dusan incorporates Albania into his kingdom.
- Invading Turkish forces overwhelm the Serbs under Prince Lazar at the Battle of Kosovo Polje (Field of the Blackbirds) in 1389. Albania, along with the rest of the Balkans, falls under Ottoman Turkish rule.
- In the 15th century, under the leadership of the national hero Skanderbeg (1406-68), Albanians fight for years against the Turks, but are eventually defeated.
- Many Albanians fleeing hunger and oppression escape to southern Italy during the 16th and 17th centuries. Others convert to Islam to receive better treatment from their Turkish masters.
- In the early 19th century, Albanian nationalist sentiment grows as the fight for independence from Ottoman rule begins. The nationalism is inspired by Greece's war of liberation (1821-30) and backed by ethnic Greek Albanians in the south.
- The pro-independence League of Prizren is founded in 1878. Albania's future is debated at the Congress of Berlin.
- In 1912, as a result of the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the First Balkan War (1910-12), Albania declares its independence at the southern city of Vlore on November 28, which is now Albania's national holiday.
- An international conference in London recognizes Albania's independence in 1913.
- With foreign backing, the northern chieftain Ahmet Zogu seizes power in 1924 and proclaims himself King Zog I in 1928.
- In 1939, Italy invades Albania. King Zog flees into exile.
- German forces enter Albania in 1943 to bolster the faltering Italian occupiers.
- In 1944, partisan bands led by the communist Enver Hoxha free Albania from Italian and German forces.
- With the end of the war in 1945, Hoxha proclaims communist rule in Albania and initiates sweeping economic and social reforms, including better health care, education, and greater rights for women.
- Yugoslavia breaks with the USSR in 1948, and Albania narrowly escapes being absorbed into the Yugoslav regions of Kosova and Macedonia in which live large numbers of ethnic Albanian minorities.
- In 1956, following Stalin's death (1953), Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounces abuses that occurred during Stalin's regime. Hoxha refuses to go along with this.
- Communist China and the USSR break off relations in 1961. Alone of the Eastern European communist states, Albania sides with China.
- Hoxha bans organized religion in Albania in 1967, as part of his "cultural revolution" modelled on Mao's in China.
- Albania withdraws from the Warsaw Pact in 1968 in protest over the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia.
- In 1976, Hoxha announces a new constitution for Albania forbidding the receipt of foreign loans, aid, or credit.
- Following the death of Mao in 1976, Albania breaks with China in 1978 as well as with the new Chinese leadership's pro-U.S. policy tilt.
- Hoxha dies in 1985 and is succeeded by Ramiz Alia, who tries to reintegrate Albania into the international community and reform the communist system.
- Albania restores diplomatic relations with the West in 1987 and signs its first economic agreements with non-communist nations.
- In 1990, following the collapse of communist regimes throughout Eastern Europe (1989), Alia lifts the ban on religion and allows opposition parties to organize.
- Albania's first post-communist free elections in 1991 result in a split between rural and urban areas. The reformed communists (Albanian Party of Labour) win most votes in the countryside, while the new, anti-communist Democratic Party gains backing in the main cities. Growing economic problems lead to mass migrations of Albanian refugees to Italy.
- In 1992, following a series of economic and political crises, new elections are called and are won by the Democratic Party. Sali Berisha becomes Albania's first non-communist president.
- Assisted by loans from the West, Albania's economy begins to recover by 1993. Berisha orders the arrest of Hoxha's widow Nexhmije, Alia, and other former communist leaders on corruption charges.
- Berisha's Democratic Party is re-elected in 1996, after the opposition boycotts the vote in protest over political repression. International observers condemn the elections as fraudulent. Berisha's government becomes increasingly autocratic and corrupt. Albania becomes a base for drug trafficking, arms smuggling to Bosnia, and international money laundering.
- In 1997, after investing millions in pyramid investment schemes promoted by their government, Albanians are outraged to find that they have lost their savings. Violent protests escalate into full-scale civil war in the south of the country. Despite the challenge to his rule, Berisha refuses to resign. Imprisoned opposition leaders are freed. Socialist Bashkim Fino becomes prime minister. Thousands emigrate to Italy. An eight-country European multinational force under Italian leadership arrives to restore order and provide humanitarian aid. New elections are called for June 29.
Activities
1. Make a list of
the various nations and peoples that have played an important role in Albania's
history, from ancient times to the present day.
2. After reading this chronology, trace some common patterns in Albania's history over the past two millennia. What are some of the problems Albanians have had to face over the course of their long and often violent past?
3. Make a list of themes that are prominent throughout Albania's history. Explain how each theme represents an essential part of this nation's history. Why might it be useful to identify themes when examining a nation's long history chronologically?
Indicates material appropriate
or adaptable for younger viewers.
